Black People and Affirmative Action Essay

Please be advised that Assignment One on the printed Tutorial Letter 101/3/2013 on pages 12 – 14 has a number of both typographical and numerical mistakes. This happened as a result of a number of factors: the initial assignment reading was too costly for the Department to commission in terms of copyright and had to be retracted at the last minute. The reading on â€Å"Affirmative Action: a losing battle? † was then included but with an almost impossible deadline, which resulted in the errors reflected therein. This is regrettable and we apologise for any inconvenience this might have cost you. The corrected version of the assignment is on page 3 and is attached to this TL and again on my UNISA for your convenience. The marks are out of 100 marks – 50 for Section A and 50 marks for Section B. NB: Please note that the due date has not changed in any way (4 March 2013). 2 ENN103F/102 8. 4. 1. FIRST SEMESTER ASSIGNMENTS The purpose of this assignment is to teach you how to read an article and to critically engage in academic reading and reflecting on the material in an academic manner by answering the short paragraph questions provided as well as an essay. Assignment 01 will be marked fairly fully and sent back to you. Affirmative action: a losing battle? There are considerable reasons to suppose that this topic, which affects all citizens of South Africa, in particular, seems dated. In some instances it is a policy viewed with hostility as it is said to discriminate against sections of the population, yet in others it is seen as beneficial to women, black people and the disabled. Studies show that in many instances this form of historical redress has proven a hindrance to performance and makes the beneficiaries doubt their abilities when viewed by their superiors. This has a negative effect on an organization since the quality of work is seen as being sub-standard. Equally, there are significant indicators, both in industry and the private sector, that the opening up of previously closed avenues through the policy of affirmative action made companies perform better since the beneficiaries of such workplace selection viewed their work as a challenge. Where beneficiaries claim stigmatization by such a selection process, it means they prefer not to have been selected through such efforts. Either way, the battle seems to go on and on. In the light of this ongoing and divisive debate, the level of debate regarding the policy has not progressed further since comparative studies of the policy have not been seriously undertaken. There has been no systematic study of the developments in how the policy actually proves beneficial as a tool of redress. Part of the reason is that, firstly, there is a lack of monitoring of what goes on in organizations, and secondly, that the regulations are not strictly enforced. For instance, companies will usually ‘front’ a black person, a woman or a disabled person, as a chief executive officer and leave the matter of compliance as a secondary issue. Rarely do such companies face serious consequences even if they do business with the government. The question then is whether a time limit should be placed on the policy and Act or whether it should be declared unconstitutional. Consideration has not been taken, for instance, of measures used in other countries to actively promote privilege. Very few advocacy groups ever mention the Naturalization Act of 1790, the Homestead Act of 1862 or even the Federal Housing Administration Loan Program of the 1930s used by the government of the United States of America to promote racial preference; or that such Acts were also used as models for other racially divided societies. Advocacy groups for and against the policy and Act have routinely made it a point that the policy is unsettling, needless and discriminatory, on the one hand, while others argue forcefully that the amelioration of past injustices justifies its implementation. Whichever side is on the ascendancy cannot take the other side’s viewpoint, and in the end the past divisions are set to continue. 3 SECTION A: Short questions Answer the following questions in short paragraphs. Please note that each question will be marked out of 10 marks: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Is the affirmative action policy morally defensible? Explain. In your opinion, which country has successfully implemented the policy of affirmative action and why did it succeed? In your view, why did the South African government choose to implement the Affirmative Action policy and Act, and was it ever justifiable? Does the policy need to be discontinued after a certain length of time, and why? In your opinion, why is it that people from a different racial group are unemployable in certain sectors of the economy and not in others? [10 X 5 = 50] SECTION B: Essay Write an essay of approximately one and a half page on either of the questions below. Please note that each essay will be marked out of 50 marks: 1) Do you think cultivating an equal opportunity society has helped countries such as South Africa and America to move forward? In a carefully worded essay, show why this is the case or why it is not. OR 2) To what extent do you consider such a policy and act relevant to the needs of any society today? [50 marks] Best wishes The ENN103F Team 4.

Transfer Functions

ECM2105 – Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2010) ________________________________________________________________________________ TRANSFER FUNCTIONS AND BLOCK DIAGRAMS 1. Introduction 2. Transfer Function of Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) Systems 3. Block Diagrams 4. Multiple Inputs 5. Transfer Functions with MATLAB 6. Time Response Analysis with MATLAB 1. Introduction An important step in the analysis and design of control systems is the mathematical modelling of the controlled process. There are a number of mathematical representations to describe a controlled process:Differential equations: You have learned this before. Transfer function: It is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output variable to the Laplace transform of the input variable, with all zero initial conditions. Block diagram: It is used to represent all types of systems. It can be used, together with transfer functions, to describe the cause and effect relationships throughout the system. State-space-representation: You will study this in an advanced Control Systems Design course. 1. 1. Linear Time-Variant and Linear Time-Invariant SystemsDefinition 1: A time-variable differential equation is a differential equation with one or more of its coefficients are functions of time, t. For example, the differential equation: d 2 y( t ) t2 + y( t ) = u ( t ) dt 2 (where u and y are dependent variables) is time-variable since the term t2d2y/dt2 depends explicitly on t through the coefficient t2. An example of a time-varying system is a spacecraft system which the mass of spacecraft changes during flight due to fuel consumption. Definition 2: A time-invariant differential equation is a differential equation in which none of its coefficients depend on the independent time variable, t.For example, the differential equation: d 2 y( t ) dy( t ) m +b + y( t ) = u ( t ) 2 dt dt where the coefficients m and b are constants, is time-invariant since the equation depends only implicitly on t through the dependent variables y and u and their derivatives. 1 ECM2105 – Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2010) ________________________________________________________________________________ Dynamic systems that are described by linear, constant-coefficient, differential equations are called linear time-invariant (LTI) systems. 2. Transfer Function of Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) SystemsThe transfer function of a linear, time-invariant system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace (driving function) U(s) = transform of the output (response function), Y(s) = {y(t)}, to the Laplace transform of the input {u(t)}, under the assumption that all initial conditions are zero. u(t) System differential equation y(t) Taking the Laplace transform with zero initial conditions, U(s) Transfer function: System transfer function G (s) = Y(s) Y(s) U(s) A dynamic system can be described by the following time-invariant differential equation: an d n y( t ) d n ? 1 y( t ) dy( t ) + a n ? 1 + L + a1 + a 0 y( t ) n ? 1 dt dt dt d m u(t) d m ? 1 u ( t ) du ( t ) = bm + b m ? 1 + L + b1 + b 0 u(t) m m ? 1 dt dt dt Taking the Laplace transform and considering zero initial conditions we have: (a n ) ( ) s n + a n ? 1s n ? 1 + L + a 1s + a 0 Y(s) = b m s m + b m ? 1s m ? 1 + L + b1s + b 0 U(s) The transfer function between u(t) and y(t) is given by: Y(s) b m s m + b m ? 1s m ? 1 + L + b1s + b 0 M (s) = = G (s) = U(s) N(s) a n s n + a n ? 1s n ? 1 + L + a 1s + a 0 where G(s) = M(s)/N(s) is the transfer function of the system; the roots of N(s) are called poles of the system and the roots of M(s) are called zeros of the system.By setting the denominator function to zero, we obtain what is referred to as the characteristic equation: ansn + an-1sn-1 + + a1s + a0 = 0 We shall see later that the stability of linear, SISO systems is completely governed by the roots of the characteristic equation. 2 ECM2105 – Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2010) ______________ __________________________________________________________________ A transfer function has the following properties: †¢ The transfer function is defined only for a linear time-invariant system. It is not defined for nonlinear systems. The transfer function between a pair of input and output variables is the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output to the Laplace transform of the input. †¢ All initial conditions of the system are set to zero. †¢ The transfer function is independent of the input of the system. To derive the transfer function of a system, we use the following procedures: 1. Develop the differential equation for the system by using the physical laws, e. g. Newton’s laws and Kirchhoff’s laws. 2. Take the Laplace transform of the differential equation under the zero initial conditions. 3.Take the ratio of the output Y(s) to the input U(s). This ratio is the transfer function. Example: Consider the following RC circuit. 1) Find the transfer function of the network, Vo(s)/Vi(s). 2) Find the response vo(t) for a unit-step input, i. e. ?0 t < 0 v i (t) = ? ?1 t ? 0 Solution: 3 R vi(t) C vo(t) ECM2105 – Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2010) ________________________________________________________________________________ Exercise: Consider the LCR electrical network shown in the figure below. Find the transfer function G(s) = Vo(s)/Vi(s). L R i(t) vi(t) vo(t) CExercise: Find the time response of vo(t) of the above system for R = 2. 5? , C = 0. 5F, L=0. 5H and ? 0 t < 0 . v i (t) = ? ?2 t ? 0 4 ECM2105 – Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2010) ________________________________________________________________________________ Exercise: In the mechanical system shown in the figure, m is the mass, k is the spring constant, b is the friction constant, u(t) is an external applied force and y(t) is the resulting displacement. y(t) k m u(t) b 1) Find the differential equation of the system 2) Find the trans fer function between the input U(s) and the output Y(s). 5ECM2105 – Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2010) ________________________________________________________________________________ 3. Block Diagrams A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the functions performed by each component and of the flow of signals. The block diagram gives an overview of the system. Block diagram items: Summing point Takeoff point Block Transfer function +_ The above figure shows the way the various items in block diagrams are represented. Arrows are used to represent the directions of signal flow. A summing point is where signals are algebraically added together.The takeoff point is similar to the electrical circuit takeoff point. The block is usually drawn with its transfer funciton written inside it. We will use the following terminology for block diagrams throughout this course: R(s) = reference input (command) Y(s) = output (controlled variable) U(s) = input (act uating signal) E(s) = error signal F(s) = feedback signal G(s) = forward path transfer function H(s) = feedback transfer fucntion R(s) Y(s) E(s) G(s) +_ F(s) H(s) Single block: U(s) Y(s) Y(s) = G(s)U(s) G(s) U(s) is the input to the block, Y(s) is the output of the block and G(s) is the transfer function of the block.Series connection: U(s) X(s) G1(s) Y(s) G2(s) 6 Y(s) = G1(s)G2(s)U(s) ECM2105 – Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2010) ________________________________________________________________________________ Parallel connection (feed forward): G1(s) + U(s) Y(s) Y(s) = [G1(s) + G2(s)]U(s) + G2(s) Negative feedback system (closed-loop system): R(s) E(s) +_ The closed loop transfer function: Y(s) G(s) Y(s) G(s) = R(s) 1 + G(s) Exercise: Find the closed-loop transfer function for the following block diagram: R(s) Y(s) E(s) G(s) +_ F(s) H(s) 7 ECM2105 – Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2010) __________________________________________________________________ _____________ Exercise: A control system has a forward path of two elements with transfer functions K and 1/(s+1) as shown. If the feedback path has a transfer function s, what is the transfer function of the closed loop system. R(s) +_ Y(s) 1 s +1 K s Moving a summing point ahead of a block: R(s) Y(s) G(s) + R(s) Y(s) +  ± G(s)  ± F(s) 1/G(s) F(s) Y(s) = G(s)R(s)  ± F(s) Moving a summing point beyond a block: R(s) Y(s) + R(s) G(s) Y(s) G(s)  ± +  ± F(s) G(s) F(s) Y(s) = G(s)[R(s)  ± F(s)] Moving a takeoff point ahead of a block: R(s) Y(s) R(s) Y(s) G(s) G(s) Y(s)Y(s) G(s) Y(s) = G(s)R(s) 8 ECM2105 – Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2010) ________________________________________________________________________________ Moving a takeoff point beyond a block: R(s) Y(s) R(s) Y(s) G(s) G(s) R(s) R(s) 1/G(s) Y(s) = G(s)R(s) Moving a takeoff point ahead of a summing point: R(s) Y(s) + Y(s)  ± F(s) R(s)  ± F(s) +  ± Y(s) + Y(s) Y(s) = R(s)  ± F(s) Moving a t akeoff point beyond a summing point: R(s) R(s) Y(s) + Y(s) +  ±  ± F(s)  ± R(s) F(s) R(s) + Y(s) = R(s)  ± F(s) Exercise: Reduce the following block diagram and determine the transfer function. R(s) + _ + G1(s) G2(s) G3(s) _ Y(s) + + H1(s)G4(s) H2(s) 9 ECM2105 – Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2010) ________________________________________________________________________________ Exercise: Reduce the following block diagram and determine the transfer function. H1 + R(s) +_ + G H2 10 Y(s) ECM2105 – Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2010) ________________________________________________________________________________ 4. Multiple Inputs Control systems often have more than one input. For example, there can be the input signal indicating the required value of the controlled variable and also an input or inputs due to disturbances which affect the system.The procedure to obtain the relationship between the inputs and the output for such systems is: 1. 2. 3. 4. Set all inputs except one equal to zero Determine the output signal due to this one non-zero input Repeat the above steps for each of the remaining inputs in turn The total output of the system is the algebraic sum (superposition) of the outputs due to each of the inputs. Example: Find the output Y(s) of the block diagram in the figure below. D(s) R(s) +_ G1(s) + + H(s) Solution: 11 Y(s) G2(s) ECM2105 – Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2010) _______________________________________________________________________________ Exercise: Determine the output Y(s) of the following system. D1(s) R(s) +_ G1(s) + + Y(s) G2(s) H1(s) + + D2(s) 12 H2(s) ECM2105 – Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2010) ________________________________________________________________________________ 5. Transfer Functions with MATLAB A transfer function of a linear time-invariant (LTI) system can be entered into MATLAB using the command tf(num,den) where num and den are row vectors co ntaining, respectively, the coefficients of the numerator and denominator polynomials of the transfer function.For example, the transfer function: G (s) = 3s + 1 s + 3s + 2 2 can be entered into MATLAB by typing the following on the command line: num = [3 1]; den = [1 3 2]; G = tf(num,den) The output on the MATLAB command window would be: Transfer function: 3s+1 ————s^2 + 3 s + 2 Once the various transfer functions have been entered, you can combine them together using arithmetic operations such as addition and multiplication to evaluate the transfer function of a cascaded system. The following table lists the most common systems connections and the corresponding MATLAB commands to implement them.In the following, SYS refers to the transfer function of a system, i. e. SYS = Y(s)/R(s). System MATLAB command Series connection: R(s) Y(s) G1 G2 SYS = G1*G2 or SYS = series(G1,G2) Parallel connection: G1 + R(s) SYS = G1  ± G2 or SYS = parallel(G1, ±G2) Y(s)  ± G2 Negative feedback connection: R(s) Y(s) +_ G(s) SYS = feedback(G,H) H(s) 13 ECM2105 – Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2010) ________________________________________________________________________________ R(s) Y(s) +_ G1 G2 H Example: Evaluate the transfer function of the feedback system shown in the figure above using MATLAB where G1(s) = 4, G2(s) = 1/(s+2) and H(s) = 5s.Solution: Type the following in the MATLAB command line: G1 = tf([0 4],[0 1]); G2 = tf([0 1],[1 2]); H = tf([5 0],[0 1]); SYS = feedback(G1*G2,H) This produces the following output on the command window (check this result): Transfer function: 4 ——-21 s + 2 Exercise: Compute the closed-loop transfer function of the following system using MATLAB. R(s) +_ 1 s +1 14 s+2 s+3 Y(s) ECM2105 – Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2010) ________________________________________________________________________________ 6. Time Response Analysis with MATLABAfter entering the transfer function of a LTI system, we can compute and plot the time response of this system due to different input stimuli in MATLAB. In particular, we will consider the step response, the impulse response, the ramp response, and responses to other simple inputs. 6. 1. Step response To plot the unit-step response of the LTI system SYS=tf(num,den) in MATLAB, we use the command step(SYS). We can also enter the row vectors of the numerator and denominator coefficients of the transfer function directly into the step function: step(num,den).Example: Plot the unit-step response of the following system in MATLAB: Y (s) 2s + 10 =2 R (s) s + 5s + 4 Solution: Step Response 2. 5 num = [0 2 10]; den = [1 5 4]; SYS = tf(num,den); step(SYS) Amplitude 2 or directly: step(num,den) 1. 5 1 MATLAB will then produce the following plot on the screen. Confirm this plot yourself. 0. 5 0 0 1 2 3 Time (sec. ) 4 5 For a step input of magnitude other than unity, for example K, simply multiply the transfer function SY S by the constant K by typing step(K*SYS). For example, to plot the response due to a step input of magnitude 5, we type step(5*SYS).Notice in the previous example that that time axis was scaled automatically by MATLAB. You can specify a different time range for evaluating the output response. This is done by first defining the required time range by typing: t = 0:0. 1:10; % Time axis from 0 sec to 10 sec in steps of 0. 1 sec and then introducing this time range in the step function as follows: step(SYS,t) % Plot the step response for the given time range, t This produces the following plot for the same example above. 15 6 ECM2105 – Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2010) _______________________________________________________________________________ Step Response 2. 5 Amplitude 2 1. 5 1 0. 5 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 Time (sec. ) You can also use the step function to plot the step responses of multiple LTI systems SYS1, SYS2, †¦ etc. on a single figure in MATLAB by typing: st ep(SYS1,SYS2,†¦ ) 6. 2. Impulse response The unit-impulse response of a control system SYS=tf(num,den) may be plotted in MATLAB using the function impulse(SYS). Example: Plot the unit-impulse response of the following system in MATLAB: Y(s) 5 = R (s) 2s + 10 Solution: Impulse Response um = [0 5]; den = [2 10]; SYS = tf(num,den); impulse(SYS) 2. 5 2 impulse(num,den) Amplitude or directly 1. 5 1 This will produce the following output on the screen. Is that what you would expect? 0. 5 0 0 0. 2 0. 4 0. 6 Time (sec. ) 16 0. 8 1 1. 2 ECM2105 – Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2010) ________________________________________________________________________________ 6. 3. Ramp response There is no ramp command in MATLAB. To obtain the unit ramp response of the transfer function G(s): multiply G(s) by 1/s, and use the resulting function in the step command.The step command will further multiply the transfer function by 1/s to make the input 1/s2 i. e. Laplace transform of a un it-ramp input. For example, consider the system: Y(s) 1 =2 R (s) s + s + 1 With a unit-ramp input, R(s) = 1/s2, the output can be written in the form: Y(s) = 1 1 1 R (s) = 2 ? s + s +1 (s + s + 1)s s 2 1 ? ?1 =? 3 2 ?s + s + s ? s which is equivalent to multiplying by 1/s and then working out the step response. To plot the unitramp response of this system, we enter the numerator and denominator coefficients of the term in square brackets into MATLAB: num = [0 0 0 1]; en = [1 1 1 0]; and use the step command: step(num,den) The unit ramp response will be plotted by MATLAB as shown below. Step Response 12 10 Amplitude 8 6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 Time (sec. ) 17 8 10 12 ECM2105 – Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2010) ________________________________________________________________________________ 6. 4. Arbitrary response To obtain the time response of the LTI system SYS=tf(num,den) to an arbitrary input (e. g. exponential function, sinusoidal function .. etc. ), we can use the lsim command (stands for ‘linear simulation') as follows: lsim(SYS,r,t) or lsim(num,den,r,t) here num and den are the row vectors of the numerator and denominator coefficients of the transfer function, r is the input time function, and t is the time range over which r is defined. Example: Use MATLAB to obtain the output time response of the transfer function: Y(s) 2 = R (s) s + 3 when the input r is given by r = e-t. Solution: Start by entering the row vectors of the numerator and denominator coefficients in MATLAB: num = [0 2]; den = [1 3]; Then specify the required time range and define the input function, r, over this time: t = 0:0. 1:6; r = exp(-t); % Time range from 0 to 6 sec in steps of 0. 1 sec Input time function Enter the above information into the lsim function by typing: lsim(num,den,r,t) This would produce the following plot on the screen. Linear Simulation Results 0. 4 0. 35 Amplitude 0. 3 0. 25 0. 2 0. 15 0. 1 0. 05 0 0 1 2 3 Time (sec. ) 18 4 5 6 ECM2105 – C ontrol Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2010) ________________________________________________________________________________ TUTORIAL PROBLEM SHEET 3 1. Find the transfer function between the input force u(t) and the output displacement y(t) for the system shown below. y(t) b1 u(t) m b2 where b1 and b2 are the frictional coefficients.For b1 = 0. 5 N-s/m, b2 = 1. 5 N-s/m, m = 10 kg and u(t) is a unit-impulse function, what is the response y(t)? Check and plot the response with MATLAB. 2. For the following circuit, find the transfer function between the output voltage across the inductor y(t), and the input voltage u(t). R u(t) L y(t) For R = 1 ? , L = 0. 1 H, and u(t) is a unit-step function, what is the response y(t)? Check and plot the result using MATLAB. 3. Find the transfer function of the electrical circuit shown below. R L u(t) y(t) C For R = 1 ? , L = 0. 5 H, C = 0. 5 F, and a unit step input u(t) with zero initial conditions, compute y(t).Sketch the time function y(t) and pl ot it with MATLAB. 19 ECM2105 – Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2010) ________________________________________________________________________________ 4. In the mechanical system shown in the figure below, m is the mass, k is the spring constant, b is the friction constant, u(t) is the external applied force and y(t) is the corresponding displacement. Find the transfer function of this system. k u(t) m For m = 1 kg, k = 1 kg/s2, b = 0. 5 kg/s, and a step input u(t) = 2 N, compute the response y(t) and plot it with MATLAB. b y(t) 5.Write down the transfer function Y(s)/R(s) of the following block diagram. R(s) Y(s) K +_ G(s) a) For G(s) = 1/(s + 10) and K = 10, determine the closed loop transfer function with MATLAB. b) For K = 1, 5, 10, and 100, plot y(t) on the same window for a unit-step input r(t) with MATLAB, respectively. Comment on the results. c) Repeat (b) with a unit-impulse input r(t). 6. Find the closed loop transfer function for the following diagram. R(s) E(s) Y(s) G(s) +_ F(s) H(s) a) For G(s) = 8/(s2 + 7s + 10) and H(s) = s+2, determine the closed loop transfer function with MATLAB. ) Plot y(t) for a unit-step input r(t) with MATLAB. 7. Determine the transfer function of the following diagram. Check your answer with MATLAB. _ R(s) +_ s s + + 1/s s 20 1/s Y(s) ECM2105 – Control Engineering Dr Mustafa M Aziz (2010) ________________________________________________________________________________ 8. Determine the transfer function of the following diagram. R(s) +_ +_ 50 s +1 Y(s) s 2/s 1/s2 2 +_ a) Check you result with MATLAB. b) Plot y(t) for a unit-impulse input r(t) with MATLAB. 9. Determine the total output Y(s) for the following system. D(s)

Case Study Of One-Peter Mitchell Samples

Chronic health conditions are multifactorial in nature and the care process by nurse must involve the clinical and patient needs. The treatment outcomes are affected by multiple factors and the nurse must be aware of different factors affecting the patient’s health (Helgeson & Zajdel, 2017). The essay deals with the case study of Peter Mitchell are a 52 year old male with morbid obesity and type 2 diabetes. The aim of the essay is to prioritize the patient needs for care integrating the different aspects of patient needs. Prioritization refers to use of clinical reasoning and decision making skills to design care process that can avoid adverse outcomes (Urden, Stacy & Lough, 2015). In reference to the chronic condition presented in the case study, the essay will identify and discuss two priorities of care while applying the clinical reasoning cycle by Levett-Jones. It is a non-linear process to analyse the series of contributing and predisposing factors. It helps develop goal driven patient care (Dalton, Gee & Levett-Jones, 2015). The clinical reasoning cycle involves eight stages, where the first stage is â€Å"consideration of patient’s situation† (Dalton, Gee & Levett-Jones, 2015). In the given case study Peter, 52 year old male is admitted to the medical ward with morbid obesity and type 2 diabetes. The patient is presented with the poorly controlled diabetes, obesity ventilation syndrome and sleep apnoea. The second stage of the clinical reasoning cycle is â€Å"collection of cues and information†. In this stage the patient’s current information is reviewed using case history, previous assessment and new information is collected through further assessment (Dalton, Gee & Levett-Jones, 2015).   The patient history shows obesity and type 2 diabetes, hypertension, sleep apnoea and depression. The patient also has history of gastro oeasophageal disease reflux and smoking (for 30 years).   The patient was previously on high protein diet to reduce weight. Peter had difficulty copi ng with the weight loss. He was instructed for light exercises by his physiotherapist. As per the patient social history, he lost his job due to insulin therapy. His weight gain, obesity and diabetes interfered with his occupations and that added to his fatigue and other health issues. Overweight is also interfering with his activities of daily living, and may have increased risk of apnoea. It added to socially isolation. He lives alone and lacks emotional support, which may also be the cause of stress and poor health. However, the patient is motivated to quit smoking and lose weight with appropriate supervision.   The patient’s assessment results showed BP 180/92mmHg, height 170cms, Weight 145kgs, HR 102 Bpm, Sp02 95% on RA, RR 23 Bpm. The handover informs different medications for abnormal vital signs and diabetes. The untreated condition may increase the risk of cardiovascular problems and other comorbidities (Koolhaas et al., 2017).     Ã‚   An important part of clinical reasoning cycle refers to â€Å"processing of information†. It involves interpreting the information, relating with the clinical knowledge to prioritize care (Dalton, Gee & Levett-Jones, 2015).   It will better help to prioritize the care.   The weight and height of the patient indicates a BMI of 50.2, which much greater than the normal range of 30, indicating obesity (Mark & Somers, 2016). Obesity is associated with ventilation syndrome and sleep apnoea. It may be the cause of upper airway obstruction that is causing the episodes of shallow breathing, when sleeping. Smoking also results in airway obstruction and apnoea (Krishnan et al., 2014). The patent may be immediately provided with oxygen. It may increase the risk of further health deterioration. Hypertension may be due to high blood pressure and increased heart rate. If untreated it may worsen diabetes as the patient is obese, which also influences blood pressure (Heymsfield & Wadden, 2 017). Increase in respiratory rate, blood pressure, high glucose level may increase the risk of heart failure or collapsibility of pharyngeal tract. Excess adipose tissue restricts the movement of diaphragm and that of chest muscles (Mark & Somers, 2016). Altogether it may affect the inhalation, exhalation as well as heart rate. It is essential to reduce weight of the patient as fatty tissue in excess amount may increase vascular resistance. Diabetes also increases blood pressure and hypertension by predisposing arteries to arthrosclerosis. It may increase the risk of kidney failure, stroke and other health issues (Cheung & Li, 2012). Social isolation and smoking may further increase the risk of anxiety and depression (Choi & DiNitto, 2014). The main problem or health issue of the patient can be identified by synthesizing facts and inferences (Dalton, Gee & Levett-Jones, 2015). The main health issue of the patient, from the above analysis, is clearly obesity and diabetes as they are linked with all the other presenting sign and symptoms.   The adverse symptoms such as hypertension, high blood glucose level, diaphoresis, or abnormal seating are common in obesity and uncontrolled diabetes. Obesity increases insulin production for compensating high glucose level. It increases the type 2 diabetes and sequentially appetite, weight gain. Diabetes is also associated with shakiness and diaphoresis. Unusual sweating or diaphoresis is common symptom in overweight and obese individual. Hypertension is also observed in both obesity and diabetes people but the later has greater influence on the hypertension (Heymsfield & Wadden, 2017). Therefore, the signs and symptoms are common in both diseases like a cyclical pathway. Interventi on is immediately required to decrease obesity and control diabetes. It will consequently improve his activities of daily living and social life.   Applying clinical reasoning cycle, establishment of goals that will yield desired health outcomes in the patient is important part of care process (Dalton, Gee & Levett-Jones, 2015).     The two priorities for   nursing care is reduction in weight and control the blood glucose level. I will do this by developing comprehensive   nursing care plan that is patient centered and evidenced based. Taking action based on evidence will ensure positive health outcomes as per clinical reasoning cycle (Dalton, Gee & Levett-Jones, 2015). To fulfill the first priority of reducing the weight of Peter, a realistic weight reduction plan will be formulated, along with appetite reduction and diet plan. It will be initiated on collaboration with dietician. Peter will be given a weekly weight loss protocol. The diet plan will include high protein and low fat consumption.   The patient will be monitored for ignoring the signals of hunger or track any distortion. The rational for this lifestyle intervention is decrease in hypertension and cholesterol with protein intake. A weight loss by ten kg may have positive impact on the cholesterol and blood pressure as per Nanditha et al., (2016). Further physical activity is essential for overweight individual. It will help reduce weight every month and enhance the metabolic rate.   The patient may be recommended for aerobics as it puts lest press ure on joints. Swimming is also considered better than jogging and walking. Involving in physical activity for 30 minutes for five days in a week will help the body mange sugar level by improving sensitivity to insulin (Koolhaas et al., 2017).    The patient will be supported with education to encourage him to lose weight. Peter will be educated about healthy diet and need of high protein consumption in present condition. To patient may be administered with the anti-obesity medication. Orlistat is another affective medicine for BMI greater than 30 kg/m2 in decreasing the absorption of dietary fat by 30%. It will help reduce weight and associated complications. It may include glycosidase inhibitors, metaformin or insulin therapy (Bedhiafi et al., 2018). The pharmacological interventions will be initiated by collaborating with the general physician attending Peter. To control the glucose level, which is the second   nursing priority metaformin may be continued as it was previously administered. Further blood pressure can be controlled by administering metaprolol (Yang et al., 2018). Medication will be administered as per the instructed dosage. Patient education is also important to self monitor glucose and for self-management of complications due to obesity and diabetes. The patient will be educated to cope up with the mental health concerns associated with weight loss program. The patient may be encouraged to stop smoking as it elevates blood sugar in diabetes patients. Referring to cognitive behavioural therapist may be effective to help Peter manage stress due to lifestyle interventions specially Smoking cessation. Further, the effect of smoking on his respiratory efficiency and Heart rate will be explained. It will relive him of fatigue (Lycett et al., 2015). The rationale for educational intervention is to encourage client in adopting h ealthy behaviour. The effectiveness of the outcomes must be evaluated as per the knowledge of clinical reasoning cycle (Dalton, Gee & Levett-Jones, 2015).   The patient’s weight will be monitored daily.   It is important to assess his understanding of the illness and treatment procedure to ensure compliance. The patient’s vital signs will be assessd to rule of any side effects of medications and modified diet. The patient will be monitored for deviations in exercise, nutrition and diet recommendations. The client is expected to demonstrate reducing weight as per plan and healthy eating. The patient is expected to self monitor glucose and show high self esteem in coping with complications. It is also important to assess for hyperglycemia condition (American Diabetes Association, 2015). Reflection on the care process is the last stage of the clinical reasoning cycle that involves contemplating on the caring and learning process (Dalton, Gee & Levett-Jones, 2015). It may be difficult for client to adhere to dietary recommendations in initial phase of treatment as he lacks emotional support.   The patient also has low self esteem due to poor body image. To address the challenges I will engage client in motivational therapy and group discussions to promote social connectedness (Harvey, 2015).   Further, challenges will be identified to prioritize future action.   The essay helped learn ways to identify patient health issue and prioritize care for Peter using clinical reasoning cycle. Identification of health issues assisted in prioritizing care. The tool helped in collecting and analyzing the clinical information. Analysis facilitated the understanding of factors underlying the Peter’s health’s complications. Prioritizing the care guided the development of adequate nursing interventions. The interventions to reduce weight and control glucose level in patient are based on evidence. It will help to address the priority issues and promote the patient health. American Diabetes Association. (2015). 3. Initial evaluation and diabetes management planning.  Diabetes Care,  38(Supplement 1), S17-S19. Cheung, B. M., & Li, C. (2012). Diabetes and hypertension: is there a common metabolic pathway?.  Current atherosclerosis reports,  14(2), 160-166. Choi, N. G., & DiNitto, D. M. (2014). Role of new diagnosis, social isolation, and depression in older adults’ smoking cessation.  The Gerontologist,  55(5), 793-801. Dalton, L., Gee, T., & Levett-Jones, T. (2015). Using clinical reasoning and simulation-based education to'flip'the Enrolled Nurse curriculum.  Australian Journal of Advanced Nursing , The,  33(2), 29. Harvey, J. N. (2015). Psychosocial interventions for the diabetic patient.  Diabetes, metabolic syndrome and obesity: targets and therapy,  8, 29. Helgeson, V. S., & Zajdel, M. (2017). Adjusting to chronic health conditions.  Annual review of psychology,  68, 545-571. Heymsfield, S. B., & Wadden, T. A. (2017). Mechanisms, pathophysiology, and management of obesity.  New England Journal of Medicine,  376(3), 254-266. Koolhaas, C. M., Dhana, K., Schoufour, J. D., Ikram, M. A., Kavousi, M., & Franco, O. H. (2017). Impact of physical activity on the association of overweight and obesity with cardiovascular disease: The Rotterdam Study.  European journal of preventive cardiology,  24(9), 934-941. Krishnan, V., Dixon-Williams, S., & Thornton, J. D. (2014). Where there is smoke†¦ there is sleep apnea: exploring the relationship between smoking and sleep apnea.  Chest,  146(6), 1673-1680. Lycett, D., Nichols, L., Ryan, R., Farley, A., Roalfe, A., Mohammed, M. A., ... & Aveyard, P. (2015). The association between smoking cessation and glycaemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes: a THIN database cohort study.  The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology,  3(6), 423-430. Mark, A. L., & Somers, V. K. (2016). Obesity, hypoxemia, and hypertension: mechanistic insights and therapeutic implications.  Hypertension,  68(1), 24-26. Nanditha, A., Snehalatha, C., Ram, J., Selvam, S., Vijaya, L., Shetty, S. A., ... & Ramachandran, A. (2016). Impact of lifestyle intervention in primary prevention of Type 2 diabetes did not differ by baseline age and BMI among Asian?Indian people with impaired glucose tolerance.  Diabetic Medicine,  33(12), 1700-1704. Urden, L. D., Stacy, K. M., & Lough, M. E. (2015).  Priorities in critical care nursing. Elsevier Health Sciences. Yang, T., Hao, Y., Zhou, S., Jiang, Y., Xu, X., Qu, B., ... & Liu, W. (2018). GW26-e0732 Superior Dynamic Heart Rate Control and Non-Inferior Blood Pressure Control with Bisoprolol vs Metoprolol Sustained Release Tablet in Mild-to-Moderate Hypertension: CREATIVE Study.  Journal of the American College of Cardiology,  66(16 Supplement), C202.

Integrating Ethnographic and Quantitative Research Essay

Integrating Ethnographic and Quantitative Research - Essay Example By providing this insight into communication they are able to point out the deficiency seen in Kleinfeld’s work, as she has failed to include this aspect in her work effectively. The study is mainly based on previous works in the field which are either descriptive or analytical in nature. The authors argue about some of Kleinfeld’s ideas related to the extent of impact of cultural differences on educational attainment of learners; especially among the minority students. They also argue that cultural differences are essential factors that might influence the learning processes, to which Kleinfeld does not appear to be paying attention. Thus, studying and understanding the real situation of cultural differences might improve the learning conditions and ultimately learning outcomes by affecting the cognitive process of the learners. This impact reflects the need to study and address the educational needs. The issue of cultural differences reflects the need for a change in educational practices to improve education achievements. The authors also stress the importance of using appropriate methods in studying cultural issues because personal attitudes of teachers in schools cannot work as evidence for studying minority students. Ethnographic studies can be taken as an example in this case, but there are other quantitative methods that may help in communicative and non-verbal studies. Thus, it will become clear that non-verbal differences are more obvious than the spoken language. A lack of existence of a common language of communication between two individuals may result in unclear signaling of expressions. The authors further argue that Kleinfeld in her work has assumed that it is lack of ‘motiviation’ that affects the learning of minority students. This implies their unwillingness to learn about the cultural values of the majority

Starwood Hotels to India Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Starwood Hotels to India - Case Study Example This paper will evaluate the environmental and competitive aspects of the Indian market that aloft will be exposed to once it begin its operation. The paper will also evaluate sound corporate and global strategies that aloft can adopt to improve its performance in the market to make a significant impact. Changes have occurred in the Indian business market since the reforms initiated in the 90s and the pro-market reforms that changed the perception of the Indian market towards foreign entities. The current growth pace of the Indian market presents a number of opportunities to local and foreign investors. With a world gross domestic product of the country expected to rise by over 5%, the country’s business environment has a strong ability to sustain new business entries (Thadani & Mobar, 2013). With the United States’ world gross domestic product expected to decline, India has the opportunity to rise into the third pole behind china and the United States. This environment presents a massive opportunity for aloft under Starwood hotels and resort to tap on the emerging growth in the sector. Increase in foreign investment in the country will increase the demand for hotels and resorts in the country and this presents a massive opportunity for aloft and Starwood hotels and resort (Tisdell, 2013). Starwood hotels and resort has faced massive competition from domestic entities in the country that will present massive competitive challenge to aloft should it enter the market. Companies like Indian hotels, the Leela ventures, Kamat hotels and the royal orchid have operated in the country for over a decade. These companies have chains of hotels and resorts in the major cities on India and have massive customer base among the local and foreign revelers. This is due to its massive investments, currently standing at $284 million after the pro-market reforms, which

Consumer behavior project Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Consumer behavior project - Research Paper Example The latest generation is the iPhone 6 Plus. IPhones are usually distributed to various parts of the world. The company partners with other companies in various parts of the world to make sure that their products are availed all over the world. The local companies are always given the responsibility of assembling and supplying the products locally. From the companies that are responsible for assembling the products are supplied to the local dealers who do the supplying. Given the segment targeted by the product the pricing of iPhones is usually relatively high. The prices cannot be said to be the highest in the market. The fact that the phones are of high quality and are priced such that middle income earners can afford them makes it very easy for the phones to do well in the market. The company promotes this product through front page magazine, radio, and magazine advertisements. They also frequently make use of hoarding and point of sale advertisement with the aim of increasing their sales. The company uses sales promotions and exchange offers to lure customers into buying this particular product (Pride & Ferrell,

Home Depot case study for Strategic management for mba class

Home Depot for Strategic management for mba class - Case Study Example Switching costs were low in this industry and this situation assisted consumers to change their retailers easily. In addition, the industry faced threat of substitutes because many products had close substitutes available. In 2006, buyers’ bargaining power was high as they had different market options and good understanding of various brand choices. In contrast, supplier power was low as majority of the retail players received suppliers from a large number of distinct vendors. Need of high initial capital investment eliminated the threat of new entrants to some extent at that time. The home improvement industry underwent tremendous changes over the next six years. Degree of rivalry got intensified because the price factor became paramount. As compared to 2006, threat of substitutes became higher in 2011 mainly because of the innovation and development of improved substitute products. By 2011, the industry adapted to a competitive pricing strategy and this situation added furth er value to buyer bargaining power. Naturally, suppliers were also forced to provide material to retailers at minimum cost; hence, supplier power further declined in 2011. Similarly, threat of new entrants also reduced to a considerable extent because new entrants found it difficult to confront with huge players like Wal-Mart. 2. While analyzing the market environment of the Home Depot for the year 2006, brand awareness seems to be the most competitive strength of the company. The Home Depot was the world’s largest home improvement retailer during that time, and this dominance boosted its brand awareness. Increased utilization of rapid deployment centers also added to the strength of the company as this strategy contributed to the efficient supply chain operations. In addition, the organization’s simple and distinct business model has entirely changed the way consumers shop home improvement

The Blacks and the British-Americans in the United States of America Essay

The Blacks and the British-Americans in the United States of America - Essay Example The black race of the United States of America also known as the African-Americans are all the descendants of the African people who were taken to America as slaves in the year 1619. These slaves had their own quarters and they were branded slaves for life. When the slaves were freed many of them settled in the southern area of Georgia while other slaves moved north into New York. Majority of the slaves lived in poverty. Racial discrimination was ripe and this meant that the blacks were not welcome in the white territories. The blacks were denied many privileges like accessing health care or even schools for their children. To solve this problem, the Africans reacted being independent through the formation of their own schools, hospitals and starting their own businesses (Edmonds 122). The British Americans the people who migrated willingly into the United States of American and they initially settled on the island of Jamestown. The British were interested in acquiring land and other resources in the United States of America. These people enjoyed various privileges like good hospitals, schools for their children and good houses. When the Americans gained their independence, many Britons were assimilated quickly into the American culture as compared to the African slaves who were not considered as American Citizens whatsoever (Elaine 210). The positive integration of the blacks in to the American Society is that they were able to interact with the American people and be able to integrate the important culture of the Americans and they were able to integrate the new technologies from the American people in their areas of work, hospitals and even schools (Edmonds 123). The Americans benefitted from the cheap and readily available source of labor from the African people. The British people were able to establish strong ties with the American people through their diplomatic skills. Business, therefore, flourished among the two races. There are many areas in the United States of America that are named after various places in Britain, for example, New Hampshire named after Hampshire (Gunnarsdottir and Nora 153).

Reflection - essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Reflection - - Essay Example y include water for sanitation use, but also drinking water bottles, and it needs to be known that they are highly expensive across the country, almost around the same price as petrol. We need to take some measures as a country to ensure we utilize water efficiently so as to ensure the resource lasts for a while and our younger one are not deprived of the key resource. To start off with we should limit out use of water, which sheds light on our fist R-Reduce (Roca and Curto, 2007). WE can do this by only consuming water when required, switching off taps when the water is not in use and placing fines on wastage of water. The second R-Reuse tells us to reuse the water rather than wasting used water. To think of it, water used by human can be used for watering soils amongst other things. Also drainage water should be stored and diverted to where it can be used, rather than supplying fresh water. The third and final R is Recycle and focuses on recycling water once it has been used. The water used up can be recycled by plants that can be setup by the UAE government, and then be supplied to the people living in UAE. While its acceptability may cause questions, people sh ould be explained about its benefits to the society as a whole and its use should be

Investigation of resistivity of nichrome wire Essay Example for Free

Investigation of resistivity of nichrome wire Essay 32 Gauge 28 Gauge Voltage Recorded Percentage Uncertainty % Ammeter The ammeter recorded the current of the circuit with the wire connected to it. 32 Gauge 28 Gauge Current Recorded Percentage Uncertainty %( Current Recorded Percentage Uncertainty. Resistance Thus, as the resistance is calculated using the voltage and current obtained, we have the following resistance percentage uncertainties. 32 Gauge Resistance Uncertainty %( Gauge Resistance Uncertainty % Resistivity This is calculated using the resistance, area and the length. The uncertainties of the resistance and length are used to calculate the uncertainty of the resistivity. The area was not used as it was found by using the gauge value and checked against a referenced site, where diameters were published. As this value was given, the uncertainty was not counted as the method of measurement was not stated. 32 Gauge 28 Gauge Resistivity Uncertainty %(Discussion As the investigation took place, the voltage was increased slowly. This increased the current passing through the circuit. From these values obtained for each of the wires, the resistance and resistivity were calculated. The resistance was calculated from both the values obtained from the experiments and also from the gradient of the graph drawn. This was done so that separate set of resistivities can be obtained and evaluated. As seen from the calculations of the resistance, it is proportional to the length of the wire. The longer the nichrome wire is, the larger the resistance will be. This was certainly the case here as the resistance for the 1 metre wire was more than double that of the 0. 5 metre wire. This larger resistance would be due to the cross-sectional area of the wires. Were the 1 metre wire had a cross-sectional area of 5. 9 x 10-8 m2, the 0. 5 metre was 1. 1 x 10-7 m2, therefore the first nichrome being longer and thinner, causes the resistance to be much larger. The resistivity was calculated for each of the nichrome wires and was found to be very close to one another. The slight difference could be due to experimental errors. The 32gauge wire had a much larger resistance, while being the longer wire and had the thinner cross-sectional area. Taking this all into consideration, the resistivity was calculated at varying voltages and the mean value was 1. 0149 x 10-6 ? m. The gradient from the graph is the resistance, this again was used to calculate a separate value of the resistivity, which was 1. 01496 x 10-6 ? m. This was done as the trend line of the graph was set to the intercept of zero, as when there is no power through the circuit there would be no voltage or current. This value is the same as the value found from the obtained tabulated results. The calculated resistivities for the 28gauge gave similar values. Here the mean value from the obtained current and voltage was 1. 095 x 10-6 ? m, where as the resistivity calculated from the gradient of the graph was 1. 12 x 10-6 ? m. Although these values looking different they are of the standard form of negative 6, meaning they are very small numbers, and therefore this slight difference is minute. Again this resistivity for the 28 gauge in comparison to the resistivity for the 32 gauge is the same, where very small decimal places are slightly out. This investigation led to determining a good value for the resistivity by using two wires of different dimensions. The accepted value for the resistivity of nichrome is 1. 50 i 10-6 ? m. This in ratio to the values obtained is as follows: 32 Gauge 1 This shows that the values obtained are very close to that of the accepted value. To improve the accuracy of the results the experiment should be repeated. In doing so, some variables should be kept constant i. e. the length, gauge or temperature so that an average can be obtained. Bibliography http://www. 8886. co. uk/ref/standard_wire_gauge. htm http://hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/hbase/electric/resis. html http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Electrical_resistivity Physics Assignment 3 Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Electricity and Magnetism section.

The Development Of Multisensory Integration In Humans Psychology Essay

The Development Of Multisensory Integration In Humans Psychology Essay Understanding how multisensory integration develops in children and how it assists them to understand the ambiguous information in the environment is now a question at the forefront of Science. This study set out to examine and compare three different age groups of children 4-5 years old attending Reception, 6-7 years old attending Year 2 and 8-9 years old attending Year 4 in a local Primary School, to see if they benefit from multisensory information (e.g. integration of sound and vision) to disambiguate ambiguous figures that has more than one representation provided in an experiment. The results revealed that children in Year 4, 8-9 years old, showed an advantage in reaction time in congruent trials (where sound is assisting the participants to see the ambiguous figures facing the direction of the target, incongruent trials (where ambiguous figures were presented with a simultaneous acoustic cue and the auditory cue is incongruent to the subsequent target presented), and finally n eutral trials (where sensory auditory cue was not related to ambiguous figures at all). The results of this study showed that childrens increasing age is having an important and positive impact in processing multisensory information by enabling and enhancing childrens ability to understand and to recognise ambiguous figures more effectively. Key words: Multisensory integration, Ambiguous figures, Visual attention. Introduction: The development of multisensory integration in human beings: Humans and animals are hardwired with a sophisticated and unique multisensory system which enhances their understanding of the environment that they live in (Stein et al., 1996; Gillmeister Eimer, 2007) and allows the integration of information between various senses. These different senses are touch, sound, vision, smell, taste and self motion. These extraordinary senses not only exclusively provide us information about our surroundings (e.g. assists us in hearing, seeing etc), but also complex understanding that cannot always be understood through just a single modality but requires multimodal integration. Multisensory or multimodal integration refers to the idea that multiple senses interact with each other to help provide us a coherent representation of various objects, events or situations to promote better understanding of our perceptual environment. We tend to recognise an object or an event better when it is represented through more than one modality (Gondal et al; 2005; Mol holm, Ritter, Murray, Javitt, Schroeder Foxe 2002). Scientists and Psychologists have been studying how multiple senses integrate to support us to make sense of complexity of our environment for centuries. In the early years these senses were studied independently (e.g. Berkeley 1709; Locke 1690). In 1980s scientists began to study the in depth processes involved within and how these senses interact together at the level of the single neuron. The recent research has been improved immensely which has contributed productively in order for us to understand the processes involved in multisensory integration (e.g. Campbell 1987; Stein Meredith 1994; Naumer Kaisar 2010). New and improved methods like functional imaging, transcranial magnetic stimulation etc has enabled us to better grasp the under lying processes involved in multisensory integration in the human brain. Psychologists and Researchers are at a stage where newly developed methodologies are being applied to different questi ons in development of multisensory integration at a neural level (Wallace, Meredith Stein 1998). There have been empirical studies in the past showing how multisensory stimuli benefit adults, but there is a gap in research with regards to when and how it develops in children. To date there has not been any research, which has explored the role of multisensory information in recognizing ambiguous figures in children. As human adults our multisensory system integrates various signals from our senses to unify functional representations. Electrophysiological, behavioural and neuroimaging studies has made it evident that different senses through our nervous system that are related to a same situation or event and are congruent in time and space increase the possibility of accurate and effective encoding a lot more than individual senses. Ernst and Banks (2002) Alias and Burr (2004) have suggested that human adults integrate excessive information in a statistically optimal manner. A fundamental question that stands is whether the optimal multimodal integration is present in children at the time of birth or does it develop during their childhood and when do children start to use multimodal integration to understand their ambiguous environment? It is fundamental to learn if early multisensory development could benefit the developing brain. The human sensory system is immature at birth, but refines as it develops essentially. Paus (2005) pointed out that brain mapping between sensory and motor conformity is updated frequently and that it is a continuous process where neural reorganisation and cognitive changes occur up until early adolescence. (Neil et. al; 2006; Barutchu, Danaher et. al 2009) pointed out that if adults benefit from the multisensory inputs; naturally children are expected to have an advantage of multisensory inputs via their nervous system as well. Numerous behavioural studies reported that human infants can identify relationships between various multisensory inputs (Bahrick and Lickliter 2000, 2004; Bahrick et al. 2002; Lewkowicz 1988a, 1996; Neil et al. 2006). Research has shown that in very early development multisensory binding is formed (Kohl and Meltzoff 1982). During the phase of gestation between 6-7 months, touching its lips results in foetal Humphrey (1964). Streri Gentaz, (2004) suggested th at even though infants are able to transfer the multisensory information across the senses at birth the advantage of multisensory integration is not observed generally until after birth (Gogate and Bahrick, 1998, Hollich et al., 2005, Bahrick et al., 2002, Walker Andrews, 1997). At the age of 8 months an infant shows multisensory facilitation of reflexive head and eye movements during spatial localization and this theory is consistent with the co-activation models Lewkowicz Shimojo, (2006). Patterson and Werker (2003) performed a preferential looking paradigm study on 2 month old infants and observed that infants were able to match voices with faces showing that infants are integrating some multisensory information. Lewkowicz (1992) studied development of multisensory information in infants 4, 6, 8 and 10 months of age, he presented the participants audio visual stimulus, (e.g. a bouncing object on the monitor) the results revealed that infants were sensitive to the temporal associ ations amongst the visual and auditory stimuli. Processes that involve multisensory facilitation tend to develop with postnatal experiences in humans and other species (Jamie Lickliter, 2006; Lickliter et al., 2006, Wallace Stein, 1997, Wallace Stein, 2001). On the contrary studies using the McGurk effect has shown that speech perception is not influenced by our vision as much in infants or young primary school age children as in adults (Massaro, 1984, McGurk MacDonald, 1976). The leading question is when do children start combining multisensory information to understand their complex environment? Two classical theories shed light in this area, The developmental integration view, which states that in newborns the ability to perceive multisensory coherence develops gradually through childs exploration experiences of the world (Piaget 1952). The second theory is the Developmental differentiation view which states that at the time of birth some of the multisensory perceptual abilities are present in infants but the other more com plex abilities emerge later in life through perceptual learning Gibson (1969, 1984). Recent research has showed us evidence that neural and behavioural limitations and the relative experience play a central role in the typical development of multisensory processing (Walker 1997). Another complexity in humans is that different senses are developed at different rates. For example, senses like touch, vestibular chemical and auditory senses begin to function before birth and finally vision develops (Gottlieb 1971). The differential rates in developmental period could worsen the challenges for adjustment and cross modal integration for example eye length, intraocular distances, growing limbs etc in humans. In contrast, some perceptual skills do not develop early in life (e.g. auditory frequency discrimination), Olsho (1984); Olsho et al; (1988). Brown et al (1987) suggested that projective size and shape are not understood until children are about 7 years of age, and research has shown that contrast sensitivity and visual acuity carries on developing until the age of 5-6 years of age. (Rentschler, et al 2004) suggested that the understanding of object manipulation also carries on developing until the age of 8-14 years. (Morrongiello et al 1994) suggested that tact ile object recognition in sighted and blind children does not develop until the age 5-6 years. Various other complicated capacities that are dependent on experiences e.g. (Elliot 1979; Johnson 2000) facilitation of speech perception in noise is immature throughout their childhood. The developmental time frame when audio visual integration is developed in children is still unclear. Hearing and vision are two of the most important multisensory modalities that humans constitute. Audio visual integration plays a vital role in many tasks e.g. understanding of speech in noisy environments or orientation towards a novel stimulus. Development of auditory system begins before vision but is not certain when these two senses begin to integrate in humans. When presented with auditory and visual stimuli, it can be perceived as a same unitary event or as two separate unimodel events. Radeau Bertelson (1977). The binding and segregation of unimodal stimuli is dependent on low level structural factors (e.g. the temporal and spatial co-occurrence of the stimulus), as well as more cognitive factors (e.g. If the stimuli are semantically congruent or not and whether the person observing is assuming that the two stimuli should go together). Numerous recent studies have shown evid ence that auditory stimuli can be mislocalized towards visual stimuli when they are presented at the same time Welch Warren 1980, P. Bertelson Gelder (2004). It has been argued in the past that when two or more sensory inputs are presented and that they are highly consistent the observers tend to treat them as a single audio visual event (Welch Warren, 1980, Jackson, 1953) therefore it is more likely to assume that they share a common spatiotemporal origin and consequently there are more chances of them to bind them in to a single multisensory event. The binding of a specific pair of visual and auditory stimuli is dependent on various different factors. Spatiotemporal coincidence plays a vital role in different forms of audio visual integration (Slutsky Recanzone 2001, Zampini, Guest, and Shore Spence 2005) but research has also shown that there are exceptions Vroomen Keetels (2006). Neil et al, (2006) examined reflexive orienting in infants, 8-10 months old. The infants showed reaction time advantage for single visual auditory cues over combined cues. On the contrary, Barutchu et al, (2009) performed a study with young children by testing them in a manual button pressing task, and revealed that most children are unable to show the same multisensory advantages until the age of 7 years old. It was proposed that the differences showed in development of audio visual integration reveals the possibility of differential development of reflexive orienting, which depends on the superior colliculus and sensory decision making, is dependent on cortical integration of sensory evidence. Barutchu et al (2009) performed a similar study in order to examine the development of multisensory orienting and button pressing for the same audio visual stimuli where eye movements were recorded of children aged 4-13 years old, N = 19 in response to auditory beeps, visual flashes showed at 20Â ° eccentricity. It was observed from the results that the total mean AV saccadic latencies were significantly shorter than either Audio or Video and the results revealed a trend towards shorter Audio visual latencies than those hypothesised by statistical support or facilitation Miller (1982). Results of this experiment showed that children aged 4 years old when examined in a saccadic orienting task are capable of showing reaction time advantage consistent with cue integration and that this ability is dependent on the early development of sub cortical multisensory processing Wallace Stein (1997). Research on children in their later childhood around 6 years and older showed the influence of multisensory information on speech precepts, balance and size judgements Gori et. al (2008). In the brain multisensory integration occurs across various different levels which involves sub cortical areas like the superior colliculus, early cortical areas like the primary auditory and visual cortices and higher cortical areas like the superior temporal sulcus and intraparietal areas. For example freezing effect Vroomen de Gelder (2000) or pip and pop effect Van der Burg et al (2008) in which auditory temporal information is needed to form illusory visual onsets tend to occur in the primary visual areas while illusions for example Mc Gurk effect, McGurk Mac Donald (1976) takes place at a higher cortical areas due to the complexity of information. The areas involved in brain that facilitates audio visual integration in humans can be seen in figure no 1. C:UsersLocstaPictures1-s2_0-S0001691810000715-gr2.jpg Figure number 1: Showing brain areas involved in audiovisual attention Studying the sensory system and multimodal integration development matters to humans as it plays a very important role in cognitive processes. Numerous anecdotal reports from clinicians and parents have stated that significant percentage of sensory impairment, atypical ties are found in children and adults suffering from autism spectrum disorder (Cesaroni Graber, 1991; Grandin 1992; ONeill Jones 1997). In 1970s scientists dedicated a large amount of research in sensory processing whilst exploring the field of ASD, and researchers found evidence of impaired sensory modulation (Stroh Buick, 1964), this study provided initial evidence for anecdotal and clinical reports of problems in multisensory integration among individuals with ASD. Multisensory processes facilitate children in numerous cognitive processes that are important in learning. Fifer et. al (2011) tested the link between auditory noise in the background, multisensory integration and childrens general cognitive abilities in children. Eighty eight children participated in this study with the mean age of 9 years and 7 months. A simple audiovisual paradigm was used for detection. The results showed that children who have enhanced ability for multisensory integration in both quite and noisy conditions are more likely to score above average on the Full Scale IQ of Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition (WISC-IV). 45%. Children with low verbal and non verbal ability showed reduced multisensory integration in either quite or noisy condition. About 20% showed better multisensory integration when there was background noise present. The findings of the experiment showed evidence that consistent multisensory integration in quiet and noisy conditions is some ways related to the development of general cognitive abilities. Ambiguous figure recognition: Ambiguous figures are figures that represent themselves in more than one way. In the past decades idea of ambiguous figure reversal has been meticulously studied by psychologists. The earliest designs of picture ambiguity may be as old as prehistoric cave art Melcher Wade, (2006). Another famous example of ambiguous figures is the Necker cube, the founder of Necker cube was a Swiss naturalist Necker (1832) and after that era other ambiguous figures were seen e.g. duck/ rabbit (Jastrow 1900) and the vase faces (Rubin 1958). Psychologists have been very interested in ambiguous figures as it provides insights to cognitive and sensory processing by means of visual processing. (Toppino 2004) performed a thorough review of ambiguous figures research, and stated that ambiguous figures opens a wide window in the fundamental mechanisms involved in the processing of the visual system which includes sensory, cognitive, motor and physiological processes. Perceptually ambiguity is the norm with regards to its special features. Particular features of an object for example distance or size cannot be seen only by our retinal input, our experiences drive our perception and information about our environment that we live in so in other words our knowledge of past experiences derived helps us in disambiguation of precepts. These experiences could be visual or involve other senses for example taste, smell, hearing, temperature or pain (Gregory, 1966). The history has showed two main theories of reversing representations of bi stable figures satiation theory and cognitive theory. Toppino et al (2005). Satiation theory states that reversing two different representations of ambiguous figure happens through a process analogous that leads to neuronal exhaustion due to tiredness when images of colours are perceived (Kohler, 1940; Long Toppino, 1981). When participants stared at a green patch and then shift their view to a white patch they eventually see red colour. What actually happens is that staring at a green colour patch fatigues the green neurons being fired in the brain and when the attention is shifted to white colour patch then the red neurons that are not fatigued dominate. Keeping this theory in mind when participants perceive a duck as an ambiguous figure, will weaken the neurons that represents the duck, and then representation of rabbit is perceived. Cognitive theory states that reversal of ambiguous figure can only happe n if the person observing the figure is aware consciously that the figure is ambiguous. (Girgus, Rock, Egatz, 1977; Rock Mitchener, 1992; Rock, Gopnik, Hall, 1994; Rock, Hall, Davis, 1994). Satiation theory and Cognitive theory map on to top down vs. bottom up processing debate. In a study performed by Girgus et al, (1977), high school students were shown ambiguous figures and they were made aware beforehand that the figures are reversible but they were not told the possible alternatives. Results showed that one half of the students made spontaneous reversal. In another study performed by Rock Mitchener, (1992), about one third of participants were able to reverse spontaneously. Cognitive development in children is a very complex developmental process and certainly is not as simple as it seems. Martin J. Doherty and Marina C. Wimmer looked at which cognitive processes and developments are important for children to experience reversal to understand ambiguous figures in children. 138, 3-5 year old children participated in these two studies to test the idea that a complicated understanding of ambiguity is needed to learn bistable stimuli (Gopnik et al 2001) Duck or rabbit? In the first experiment a novel Production task measured the ability to recognise ambiguity of the figures. The children found this task easier than the Droodle task and the level was similar to the False Belief task and was significantly correlated to the False Belief Task. The same findings were tested again in second study and the results showed that it was much more difficult to perceive the reversal of ambiguous figures than the Production or the False Belief task. The results revealed v ery interesting findings that children only try to reverse the figures when they understand the representational relationship amongst the figure and its ambiguity. The process that helps in reversal of figures is difficult, and most probably need developments in areas such as executive functioning and imagery abilities. Ambiguous figure reversal studies are also been found to be useful in showing indications of the presence of autistic traits in a big number of population. In a study performed by (Best, Owens, Moffat, Power and Johnstone 2008) showed evidence that the performance of adolescents in reversing ambiguous figures has showed in advance, the probability of participants to have characteristics of autism, poor mental abilities and superior visio- spatial attributes. (Best et al) has emphasized that there is clear evidence that ambiguous figures studies is a very important modality to be studied in understanding autism on the contrary there is also evidence that even though autistic children who are unable to reverse ambiguous figures appropriately later in life they develop the ability to reverse Ropar, et al (2003). Capps, Lisa, Gopnik Alison, Soble David (2005), performed a study on young children to examine ambiguous figure perception and theory of mind. They observed that about one third of 5-9 year old children were successfully spontaneously able to reverse the ambiguous figures where as autistic childrens did not perform well in reversing ambiguous figures as normal children. It is surprising though that ambiguous figure studies and multisensory integration being such an important modality in understanding cognition and visual processing etc there has not been extensive research done on childrens understanding and perceiving of ambiguous figures. Gopnik, Rock and Hall (1994) studied the perception of ambiguous figure task in children and suggested that figure reversal is much more complex than just low level perceptual process, they also found that even though children were informed of the ambiguity of the figures, 3 year old children still failed to reverse and only 50 percent of the 4 year old children were successfully able to reverse the main result is that young children aged under 5 are unable to reverse ambiguous figures Gopnik and Rosati (2001), Rock Gop nik and Hall (1994). Centuries of long term research with adult participants suggests that bottom up (lower level) processing in our brain and higher level cognitive processes (top down) processes play a fundamental role in assisting us to disambiguate ambiguous figures. Top down processing theory suggests that there is a voluntary control over the ability to reverse; knowing that we are dealing with ambiguous figures which have more than 1 interpretation to them is an important element and the willingness to reverse the ambiguous figure. On the contrary bottom up processes in our brain assists us in disambiguating ambiguous figures are related with neural weakness/ satiation as predicted by Gestalt Psychologists. Marina et al (2005) performed four studies with 63 children, 3, 4 and 5 year olds, results showed evidence that in young children the concept of more than 1 interpretation develops around the age of 4 but the perception of ambiguity develops around the age of 5. The role of visual attention in processing multisensory information in humans: Visual attention plays an important role in processing multisensory information which helps humans to select information across the visual field. It is considered that genes are somewhat or partly responsible for the development of our attentional networks in the brain but there are other important factors (e.g. particular experiences provided by caregivers and also the culture that we live in play a vital role). We attend to the visual information in our surroundings by simply looking at various locations. The centre portion of our eyes is called fovea, as fovea tend to have better vision it provides us a benefit when viewing different locations. There are two types of attention covert attention and overt attention. Simply looking at different locations e.g. finding your motorcycle in the parking lot or your friend in a restaurant this type of attention is called overt attention when its easier to observe their eye movement, another type of attention which enables us to attend to va rious locations without the movement of our eyes is called covert attention. According to John Colombo (2001) Rudimentary forms of various attention functions are present at birth, but each of the functions exhibits different and apparently dissociable periods of postnatal change during the first years of life. Susan E. Bryson (2010) suggested that humans ability to move attention in space effectively plays a vital role in our ever changing world. From very early in life, our ability to selectively orient or redirect attention allows us to connect with key others, to learn about and make sense of the world, and to regulate our emotional reactions. The functional anatomy reveals that orienting system is connected to areas of the parietal and frontal lobes in our brain. Posner (1980) suggested that orienting can be implied by showing a cue where you want the participants attention at a specific space which provides a platform for the participant to pay attention towards the cued position by moving or not moving their eyes. FMRI studies have showed evidence that superior parietal lobe is connected with orienting after the presentation of cue Corbetta et al (2000). The alerting mechanism tends to be associated with parietal and frontal regions of the brain. It has been seen that ongoing vigilance and performance tasks activates specific levels of alertness and these tasks has the ability to activate parietal and frontal areas of the right hemisphere in the brain Coull et al (1996); Marrocco et al (1994). Neuropsychological experiments have shown evidence in animals that an unexpected sound can enhance perceptual processing of suc ceeding visual stimuli. Recent studies Nadia et al (2002) have shown that perceptual processing enhancement also exists in humans. This phenomenon can be explained by means of cross modal interaction effects. Nadia et al (2002) showed in a study that auditory stimuli can enhance visual system in a detection task in humans as well. Michael Posner (1994) has performed very interesting research in order to study attention in humans and the three attention networks using the ANT (Attention network test) flanker task, which is an effective tool and allows us to test voluntary and involuntary attention. It helps us to study how brain pays attention to emotional events Fan et al. (2002), Posner and Peterson (1990). In this study subjects were asked to keep their eyes fixated at a point when flanking stimuli are presented on the right or left side of the fixated points. Posner stated that flanking stimuli can be detected easily even when their eyes are fixated on the cross hairs Posner (199 4). In conclusion Multisensory facilitation starts at a very early age and continues to develop throughout the childhood. Nardini et al (2006) suggested that children automatically combine auditory and visual information and this multimodal integration is matured around the age of 9-10 years. One possible domain is when children use auditory and visual information to disambiguate ambiguous figures in order to understand how multisensory integration assists young children to disambiguate ambiguous figures. Therefore this study employed an experimental design similar to Posner Michael (1994), flanker task. The role of multisensory integration in understanding ambiguous figures can be very useful for young children and atypically growing children suffering from (e.g. autistic spectrum disorder or dyslexia). Thus I proposed a study to examine what role does multisensory integration specifically audio and visual integration play in disambiguating ambiguous figures in young children. Hence it was decided to investigate the possibility that participants performance will be faster in congruent trials (where an ambiguous figure is shown with a simultaneous sound, and the auditory cue was congruent with reference to subsequent target). For example an ambiguous figure showing a duck and a rabbit, the sound accompanying it was quack representing, the duck which is facing towards the left side and the target (star) appears on the left side as well. Whereas for Incongruent trials (auditory cue is not congruent with reference to the subsequent target). Finally neutral trials where ambiguous figures are presented with non related simultaneous sound (e.g. sound of a motorcycle racing) presented with an ambiguous figure showing a duck and a rabbit and then a target appears on the left or right of the screen. Method: Participants: After seeking ethical approval from the Department of Psychological Sciences Birkbeck University of London and authorisation from all parents of young children, 45 young male and female healthy children from a local primary school were randomly employed to participate in this experiment. Three participants (1 female from reception class, 1 male from year 2 and 1 female from year 4) did not complete the study so their incomplete data were extracted from the study. Six children with learning disabilities also participated in this study but their data was discarded due to ethical purposes, as performing this experiment with disable children was not one of the aims of this study, I aimed to perform this study with healthy children, and so the results could be generalized to a healthy population of children. The experiment was performed on three different age groups of children. The first group consisted of 4-5 year old children who attended reception class, the second group had 6-7 year old children who attended grade 2 and third group 8-9 year old children who attended Year 4 in a local Primary School. The study was completed in three different early morning sessions. Stimuli: The stimuli (ambiguous figures) were displayed on the laptop screen using an e-prime programme developed by Dr Denis Mareschal. The ambiguous figures were black in colour the background was white as shown in figure no 2. The target was presented on either the right or left side of the screen. The participants were to respond to the target according to which side it appears on by pressing the corresponding right or left key on the mouse. On the Incongruent trials the target appeared in the opposite direction and congruent trials the flanking target appeared in the same direction and in neutral trials the ambiguous figure was shown with a non-related sound. Participants viewed the screen from about approximately 64 cm. The target used in this study flanker (star) can be seen in figure no 3. Figure number 2: Showing ambiguous figures used in this study representing more than one interpretation in one figures. Figure no 3: Showing the flanker (Star) presented on either right or left side of the ambiguous figure to alert the children in this experiment. Design: This non-routine experiment is based upon Michael Posner (1994) and Eriksen and Eriksen (1974) flanker task experiment. The computer based programme called E-prime Ambiguous Figures (a commercial experiment programme application) that runs on Windows XP presented on a 12 inch monitor to study the role of multisensory information in disambiguating ambiguous or bi stable figures in children. Trials are divided in to 6 blocks and each block consisted of 45 trials, 15 congruent, 15 Incongruent and 15 neutral trials. At the initial stage of the programme it asks for session number, gender of the participant and finally for his or her date of birth, upon completion of all this information press OK. Instructions appears on the screen Look for the star click the right mouse button if it is displayed on the right side of the screen and click the left button if it is displayed on the left side of the but

Iago in William Shakespeares Othello Essay examples -- Shakespeare Ch

Iago in William Shakespeare's Othello Iago has many motives for destroying the other characters in the play. One of these is jealousy. Iago is jealous of Othello, Desdemona, Cassio and even his own wife, Emilia. He is jealous of Othello for many reasons. Iago wants the power and the respect that Othello has. We see this in Act 2 scene 1 where Iago says ‘the moor- howbeit I endure him not- is of a constant, loving, noble nature’ which hints that he wants what Othello has as they are both opposites and these attributes may be the ones he will need to gain power. Iago is jealous of Othello’s marriage with the senator’s daughter as it gives Othello even more power and an attractive wife- he envies Othello for his wife as he states ‘I do love her too’ which suggest that Iago may have feelings towards Desdemona making him more jealous of what Othello has. Also Iago is crude and racist and always calls Othello the ‘moor’ which is a racist term. This could be the reason for his jealousy as he finds the fact that Othello is above him quite unnatural. In his soliloquy, Iago states ‘he’s done my office’ referring to Othello, which means Othello has slept with his wife making him even more jealous, even though he does not know if it is true or not. Iago is also jealous of Desdemona. He wants to be in her place- he wants to be an influential person to Othello- he wants to be closer to him thus closer to power. He twists the fact that Othello is passionate and obsessed with Desdemona to his own advantage. We see this when Iago states that he will ‘put the moor at least into a jealousy so strong that judgement cannot cure’ meaning that Iago will use... ...om Cassio) with his words and need not use them anymore. We are left to make our own minds up about why Iago did it. There are hints here and there but still we do not know him well enough to conclude what his reasons were from the evidence we receive throughout the play. We cannot even be sure that Iago was telling us his true thoughts in his soliloquies about Othello and Cassio having slept with Emilia. May be he is motiveless: he just invents reasons to be bad. We do not hear of the affair situation anywhere outside Iagos soliloquies. He does say himself ‘I am not what I am’ so does this not mean that anything he seems to be he is not and everything he says is a lie. I believe that Iago is the character with the most depth that I have ever encountered- so much depth that it becomes almost impossible to analyse him.

Influenza in London :: Journalism Spanish Flu Heatlh Essays

GLOBAL INFLUENZA REPORT: LONDON Bill Smith is a Health Correspondent for the "The Times" in London. He sends weekly reports to the Irvine World News. For the week of 22 October to 29 October 1918. With an end to the war on the horizon London continues to be ravaged by the Spanish Flu. As reported in The Times "The general death-rate last week increased to 41 per 1,000 of the population per annum compared with 12 at the same period last year. This is the highest death-rate for over 20 years."1 As a result of the current drastic increase in the number of people inflicted with the flu, all sectors of Society are being gravely impacted. In many areas schools are being closed with the reasons for closure being vast, the primary reason being the effort to prevent the spread of influenza amongst pupils. In other areas schools are being closed due to a lack of healthy staff. However, some medical authorities believe that the closing of schools is unnecessary, as closing schools would "...simply release the children and allow them to congregate in places where the danger of infection is greatest. [At the moment] Efficient ventilation and segregation are considered the best means of fighting the disease."2 In other sectors of public service, telephone services have been impacted as the complement of healthy telephonists has decreased.3 In Sleugh, as well as in many other communities, post offices have been closed, as postmasters have not been available. Additionally, Omnibus services are starting to be affected and it is expected that the number of schedule changes will increase if the outbreak is not brought under control. More concerning is that in several areas emergency services have been greatly reduced. As of Saturday 26 October "There were stated to be 1,300 members of the Metropolitan Police Force suffering from the disease yesterday, and in 25 cases it proved fatal.... Eighty-two members of the London Fire Brigade are off duty owing to influenza."4 Lord Nelson, of the Mayfair Community Council expressed the sentiment that he and his fellow residents are extremely distressed with the number of police and fire fighters inflicted with the flu, and that they hope that their fellow citizens will continue to be extra vigilant so that the services of these people will not be needed unnecessarily.

Asthma Essay -- essays research papers

Asthma is a condition of the bronchial tubes characterized by episodes of constriction and increased mucous production. A person with asthma has bronchial tubes that are super sensitive to various stimuli, or triggers, that can produce asthma symptom.In other words, asthmatics have special sensitivity that causes their lung tissue to react far more than is should to various stimulating factors or triggers. For this reason, people with asthma are said to have "twitchy airways."Some symptoms that people with asthma commonly experience are chest tightenings, difficulty inhaling and exhaling, wheezing, production of large amounts of mucous in their windpipes and coughing.Coughing can be frequent or intermittent, and can be loose-reflecting extra mucous secretion in the airways or dry and deep-reflecting tight bronchospasms. Not all these symptoms occur in every case of asthma.Sometimes people may have coughing without and symptoms for months or even years before it's realized that they are asthmatic. Interestingly enough, asthma symptoms are most severe at night, while we're lying down our airways narrow as a result of gravity changes. Also our lungs do not clear secretions as well at night, which leads to mucous retention, and that can increase the obstruction to air flow. Furthermore, at night our bodies produce smaller amounts of certain chemical that help to decrease airway spasms and keep airway tubes open. All of these factors add up to a greater chance of symp...

Aging and Cognitive Status

The following paragraph will identify the physical manifestations of aging, thus illustrating the most commonly viewed perception about elderly – forgetfulness. What is it all about and why and how does it affect human lives. This essay will answer the question as to whether forgetfulness is a pathologic or biologic characteristic of aging.The premise on which this paper operates on is the inference and personal opinion of the author relative to the effects and conditions of forgetfulness, its impact to both young and old alike.Aging is tantamount to the degeneration of all bodily functions, until such time when the function exhausts itself and degenerate. This is because the life span of the human cell only extends up to such time until it no longer regenerates.As we age, the usual optimal level of bodily functions that we have gotten used to begins to slow down. This also holds true with the cognitive and motor functions. In the cognitive aspect, aging brings along the tende ncy of memory loss and focus. Older people sometimes finds it hard to remember events that took place in the past, even more so with events which took place just recently.Cognition won’t be as efficient and sharp as it used to be. There is the deterioration of vision and eyesight that sometimes causes a great deal of confusion among elderly and sometime the same culprit as that of accidents and fall.As for motor functioning, there is the slowing down of bodily movements, as in the case of slow movement. One of the possible reasons can be attributed to the poor vision, where in they move slowly because they can not see very clearly therefore requiring them to make sure every step they make.Certain cells in the brain die causing it to alter cognition in a way also affecting other functions like the satiety, taste buds memory and etc.This is true to almost every human being, although the rate of deterioration may differ on a case to case basis, depending on how the body has been taken cared for while in their youth (AAGP. 2004). Almost every elderly, experiences a certain percentage of memory loss, deterioration of vision and taste buds, as well as that of motor functions at certain point in time.Although, the hearing, memory, taste and vision loss is common among elderly, this can also happen in earlier stages of life, especially so with accidents causing injury or trauma to the central nervous system. Forgetfulness also happens to young people, which is especially true when there are a lot of things going on in a person’s life.Sometimes, there are just too many things to take care of, responsibilities at home, in school, the family and even to self. Sometimes it is the kind of lifestyle that causes this.Memory lapse can be a bothersome thing, however temporary they may be; the idea of forgetting things can be so irritating especially if you lost it at the time it is most needed.The best thing to do if this happens to younger people like me is to s top whatever it is that I am doing and concentrate, de-stress and relax, so that the thought comes back when the body is at the state of ease and comfort (Rauch. 2005).Reference PageAAGP [American Association for Geriatric Psychiatry]. (2004). Geriatrics and Mental Health factsheet. Retrieved online on 14 Feb 2007 from http://aagponline.org/prof/facts_mh.aspRauch, Kate. (2005). Why are many elderly people forgetful? It may be the blues. A WebMDarticle published in MedicineNet webpage last Jan 30, 2005. Retrieved 14 Feb 2007 from: http://www.webmd.com/content/article/13/1674_50449

Curriculum Alignment Research Suggests That Alignment Can Improve Student Achievement Essay

Alignment is a match between two categories and Curriculum describes what gets taught (Squires, 2012). Curriculum alignment attempts to put to maximum effect the relationship among three categories; namely the taught curriculum, the written curriculum, and the test curriculum. It shows how the above can be used to improve student achievement thus explaining how the design for a curriculum can be aligned to state standards and state specifications for effective instructional process (Squires, 2012). This article serves to provide a backup into a curriculum design that makes sure what is tested gets taught. It also shows the difficulty that is encountered in in having numerous assessment standards and seeks a way to eliminate the challenge and secondly a specific curriculum can be potentially aligned to more than one standard. From this article, we get to find from Balance curriculum that when a curriculum is properly aligned, student achievement and performance improves. According to Squires (2012), when taught curriculum is aligned to written standards, there is increased, strong and positive student achievement. Squires (2012) showed textbook studies fostered a limited range of learning strategies such that the emphasis is frequently on problem solving rather than learning by reading, discussion and argument in order to acquire the knowledge to solve a problem of one’s own choosing. Squires (2012) showed that textbooks may not be well aligned to state tests and it would be prudent for the school districts to identify the gaps and provide the teachers with materials to cover the gaps. In order to align the state tests (test curriculum) to state standards (written curriculum), Marzano came up with a benchmark for comparing all state and national professional association standards to each other and created a website where the same could be achieved for instance, Archives (www.aligntoachieve.com) provided four criteria for alignment of textbooks to standards that are; content, performance, level of difficulty and balance and range. From above we also find there is constraint in testing time where only a limited number of concepts can be assessed effectively (Squires, 2012). From (Third International Mathematics and Science Studies) TIMSS study findings, it is significant to note that the content of a country’s’ curriculum affects student achievement and that for student learning, the extent of opportunities to learn will depend on the time the teacher spends on the topic which translates to greater performance. A district must control time and content covered at a specific time if the results are to improve of which it is the function of the curriculum. The districts can assist in aligning, structuring, implementing and assessing the curriculum (Squires, 2012). Reference Squires, D. A. (2012), Curriculum Alignment Research Suggests That Alignment Can Improve Student Achievement, London, Routledge. Source document